Contributors: Steven Barbone, Laurent Bove, Edwin Curley, Valérie Debuiche, Michael Della Rocca, Simon B. Duffy, Daniel Garber, Pascale Gillot, Céline Hervet, Jonathan Israel, Chantal Jaquet, Mogens Lærke, Jacqueline Lagrée, Martin Lin, Yitzhak Y. Melamed, Pierre-François Moreau, Steven Nadler, Knox Peden, Alison Peterman, Charles Ramond, Michael A. Rosenthal, Pascal Sévérac, Hasana Sharp, Jack Stetter, Ariel Suhamy, Lorenzo Vinciguerra.

REPRODUÇÃO ANIMAL: FECUNDAÇÃO E GESTAÇÃO -/- ANIMAL BREEDING: FERTILIZATION AND PREGNANCY -/- Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva Departamento de Zootecnia da UFRPE E-mail: [email protected] WhatsApp: (82)98143-8399 -/- REPRODUÇÃO ANIMAL: FECUNDAÇÃO E GESTAÇÃO -/- 1. INTRODUÇÃO Em geral, a reprodução dos animais domésticos constitui o eixo sobre o qual se ramificam as produções animais mais importantes (leite, carne e ovos). Conhecer os fenômenos fisiológicos que ocorrem durante as diferentes fases da função reprodutiva e os mecanismos que a regulam demonstrou ser primordial (...) para a posterior aplicação das técnicas reprodutivas destinadas a regulá-la de acordo com os nossos interesses. Dentro deste amplo tema, a fecundação e a gestação, temas que se desenvolvem nesse trabalho, representam uma etapa relativamente longa e delicada sobre a qual apenas podemos intervir diretamente. No entanto, podemos facilitar as condições ambientais ideais, implantando um manejo cuidadoso e uma alimentação equilibrada, de acordo com os nossos conhecimentos. 2. A FECUNDAÇÃO As células sexuais cumprem a finalidade para a qual foram criadas no instante em que ocorre a sua união. Este fato, que garante a sobrevivência da espécie, é denominado fecundação. Consiste, em primeira instância, numa aproximação de ambos os gametas num lugar concreto do aparelho reprodutor feminino, para, posteriormente, ocorrer a penetração do espermatozóide no interior do ovócito. Segue-se a fusão dos elementos nucleares e citoplasmáticos dos dois gametas, constituindo-se uma célula ovo ou zigoto com a dotação cromossômica própria da espécie. A parte central do oviduto, a ampola tubária, é o local ou zona de fecundação. Esta experimenta, ao longo do ciclo estral e sob a ação hormonal, modificações internas destinadas a garantir o êxito da importante missão deste lugar das vias genitais femininas. 2.1 Transporte gamético Após a ruptura do folículo de Graaf, o oócito é captado pelo infundíbulo e introduzido no aparelho genital feminino, iniciando-se assim o seu percurso pelo oviduto. Na maioria dos mamíferos a ovulação ocorre antes de completar a segunda meiose, reiniciando-se esta e produzindo-se a expulsão do segundo corpúsculo polar uma vez ocorrida a penetração espermática. O deslocamento do gameta feminino pelo oviduto é promovido pela ação conjunta da atividade muscular do órgão (contrações peristálticas), os movimentos ciliares das células que tapizam o interior do tubo e, em algumas espécies, soma-se a ação dos fluidos internos. Da mesma forma, a velocidade de deslocamento depende do equilíbrio hormonal estrogênio-progesterona, com a mesma diminuição da ação estrogênica. Geralmente, a passagem do infundíbulo ao ponto de fecundação é rápida. O tempo requerido é estimado por uma oscilação de 30 a 180 minutos. Assim como o gameta feminino, os espermatozoides, uma vez depositado o sêmen na vagina, cérvix ou útero da fêmea, devem deslocar-se até a ampola tubária para que a fecundação possa realizar-se. O deslocamento destas células é geralmente também muito rápido, encontrando-se espermatozoides na zona tubária a poucos minutos depois de efetuada a cobrição. A velocidade com que ocorre depende de diversos fatores, entre os quais se incluem, o volume de ejaculação, o lugar em que se deposita e a anatomia do trato genital feminino. A própria mobilidade do gameta, a atividade contrátil da musculatura do órgão (motivada pela liberação de oxitocina durante a cobrição) e a atividade das células ciliadas do oviduto são os máximos responsáveis pela franquia da distância que separa o lugar de ejaculação e a ampola tubária. O transporte espermático constitui, em última análise, um modelo de seleção progressiva de células entre o ponto de deposição e o ponto de fecundação, no qual se vão auto-eliminando os espermatozoides menos viáveis. Na realidade os gametas se selecionam a si mesmos segundo sua capacidade, em especial ao atravessar a zona de barreira ou passagem do aparelho genital feminino. Por isso, apenas um número relativamente reduzido de células consegue atingir a zona de fertilização. Segundo Derivaux (1984), este número não excederá de 1.000 na rata, 5.000 na coelha e de 6.000 na ovelha, dos vários milhões que se derramam em cada ejaculação. Em suma, as células mais dotadas serão as que competem, uma vez atravessada a união útero-tubária, pela fertilidade do óvulo. 2.2 Duração da capacidade fertilizante dos gametas As células sexuais têm, após a sua liberação no aparelho reprodutor feminino, uma vida útil relativamente curta (tabela 1). Espécie Duração da fertilidade (horas) Ovócito Espermatozoide Duração da motilidade espermática (horas) Coelhos 6 – 8 30 – 36 43 - 50 Bovinos 8 – 12 28 – 50 15 - 56 Ovinos 16 – 24 30 – 48 48 Ratos 8 – 12 14 17 Equinos 6 – 8 144 144 Suínos 8 – 10 24 – 48 56 Homem 6 – 24 24 – 48 60 - 96 Tabela 1. Duração da fertilização e da motilidade espermática em ambos os gametas. Adaptado e elaborado a partir de COLE, 1977. Além disso, sabe-se que o envelhecimento dos gametas é incompatível com o desenvolvimento embrionário. Tais circunstâncias, condicionam o momento da cobrição ou da inseminação artificial, o qual deve estar praticamente sincronizado com o da ovulação da fêmea. Isto permitirá a ligação das células num momento propício, garantindo que as células espermáticas cheguem a zona de fecundação, enquanto o ovócito é expelido do folículo. Nas espécies em que a formação espermática é muito longa, o espermatozoide deve encontrar-se no trato genital feminino várias horas antes da ovulação. A viabilidade dos espermatozoides é determinada por dois aspectos: motilidade e fertilidade. Seu envelhecimento traduz-se em uma diminuição de ambas qualidades, sendo a fertilidade a primeira a diminuir depois da ejaculação. O envelhecimento do ovócito implica na diminuição da sua capacidade fecundante e origina um aumento do número de embriões anormais, aparentemente devido a uma falha no bloqueio contra a polispermia. Na maioria dos mamíferos o ovócito deve ser fertilizado nas horas imediatas a sua liberação e poucos deles podem ser fertilizados uma vez decorridas 12 horas desde a ovulação. 2.3 Capacitação e penetração espermática Os espermatozoides culminam o seu processo de maturação e se convertem em células aptas para a fertilização ao experimentarem, no interior do aparelho genital feminino, uma mudança fisiológica que lhes confere maior mobilidade e a faculdade de emitir enzimas proteolíticas pela região acrossômica da cabeça. Esta mudança física é chamada de capacitação espermática. A capacitação é considerada o resultado de dois mecanismos: a inativação de agentes antifertilidade ou fatores de descapacitação do plasma seminal que se encontram unidos à cabeça espermática e a produção de enzimas acrossômicas (reação acrossômica). A reação acrossômica origina uma mudança estrutural na parte anterior da cabeça espermática que permite a liberação de uma série de enzimas, fato que facilitará a penetração das coberturas do ovócito. Estas alterações incluem fusões diversas e progressivas entre a membrana acrossômica externa e a membrana plasmática celular, ficando a parte anterior da cabeça espermática limitada por uma série de vesículas, entre as quais fluem enzimas, principalmente hialuronidase e a acrosina. A primeira parece ter a missão de dissolver o ácido hialurônico, que mantém unido o cumulus oophorus, ao passo do espermatozoide. Durante a passagem pela zona pelúcida há a intervenção da acrosina. A capacitação e reação acrossômica são modificações prévias e indispensáveis para a penetração espermática ou parte mecânica do processo de fertilização, a qual termina com a passagem da membrana vitelina depois de ter salvado as barreiras que supõem as células do cumulus, a coroa radiada e a zona pelúcida. Em certas espécies (mulher, rata e cobaia), a penetração do espermatozoide é completa. Noutras (vaca, ovelha, coelha e cadela) é limitada exclusivamente à cabeça, permanecendo a cauda (flagelo) no exterior. A penetração do ovócito pelo espermatozoide dá lugar a uma série de fenômenos conducentes a um desenvolvimento normal do ovo fertilizado: o bloqueio da polispermia e a finalização da segunda meiose. Consumada a penetração, a reação da zona pelúcida e da membrana vitelina impedem a penetração de outro espermatozoide, evitando assim a polispermia, a qual originaria indivíduos poliploides não viáveis, sendo uma dotação cromossômica 3n ou mais uma alteração letal. Este mecanismo de reação, junto ao reduzido número de gametas masculinos que alcançam o oviduto, são aspectos que minimizam as possibilidades de fertilização polispérmica. O mecanismo de bloqueio da polispermia em mamíferos ainda não é conhecido com precisão. No entanto, sabe-se que as estruturas citoplasmáticas ovocíticas denominadas grânulos corticais desempenham um papel importante e que, ao descarregar o seu conteúdo, alteram a penetrabilidade da zona pelúcida e, por vezes, da membrana vitelina. O bloqueio, uma vez iniciado, propaga-se pela superfície ovular, estendendo-se a partir do ponto de origem, ou seja, do lugar onde o espermatozoide conecta-se com a superfície vitelina. Na maioria dos mamíferos domésticos (exceto cadela e égua) o ovócito é mantido na metafase da segunda divisão meiótica até que ocorre a penetração espermática, instante em que se estimula a sua reinicialização, completando-se a meiose com a expulsão do segundo corpúsculo polar. A partir daqui começam a desenvolver-se os pronúcleos masculino e feminino, os quais se convertem em duas massas cromossômicas que se repartem ao redor da placa equatorial na prófase da primeira mitose e que permitirá restabelecer o número cromossômico da espécie. A mistura de substâncias nucleares parentéricas é denominada anfimixis. As primeiras segmentações do zigoto ocorrem a nível do oviduto, pois, depois da fertilização os embriões permanecem durante algumas horas acima da junção ampola-istmo. Esta zona é abandonada para assim alcançar o meio uterino, onde transcorrerá o período de gravidez ou gestação. 3. A GESTAÇÃO A gestação compreende o espaço de tempo que vai desde o momento da fecundação até o parto. Podemos, a priori, diferenciar três fases do ponto de vista do desenvolvimento: fase de ovo, fase embrionária e fase fetal. A fase embrionária compreende a organogênese e a fase fetal o crescimento posterior dos órgãos, sendo a delimitação entre ambas muito difícil, uma vez que não existe nenhum fato ou circunstância determinante que as separe claramente, pelo que na prática se encontram sobrepostas. 3.1 Fase do ovo Esta fase, de curta duração, vai desde a fertilização do óvulo até à eclosão do blastocisto. O transporte do ovo para a zona uterina ocorre 2 dias depois na porca e entre o terceiro e o quarto dia em ruminantes, regulado por contrações da musculatura lisa da parede do oviduto sob a influência das hormonas esteroides ováricas. Seu estado de segmentação quando penetra no útero varia com as espécies: de 8 a 16 blastômeros na égua e na vaca, 16 na ovelha e 4 na porca. Durante estes primeiros momentos do desenvolvimento em que o ovo se desloca pelo oviduto (figura 1) sua nutrição é garantida pelas reservas citoplasmáticas do óvulo e pelo fluxo tubárico, especialmente abundante imediatamente após a ovulação. Entretanto, e sob a influência da progesterona proveniente do corpo lúteo em fase de crescimento, o útero experimenta mudanças destinadas a receber o embrião em fase de crescimento. Em primeiro lugar ocorre a proliferação de leucócitos polimorfonucleares que fagocitam os restos seminais e germes introduzidos durante a cobrição procurando esterilizar e adequar o ambiente. Em segundo lugar, verifica-se a proliferação do epitélio glandular uterino ou endométrio, produtor do fluido uterino ou histótrofo, que garantirá a nutrição do embrião até a posterior implantação do mesmo e, com isso, sua viabilidade. Figura 1. Esquema do deslocamento e do desenvolvimento do zigoto pelo interior do oviduto. Elaborado a partir de COLE, 1977 e HUNTER, 1987. Os embriões continuam o seu desenvolvimento através da mitose. A partir de 16 células os blastômeros são chamados de mórulas. Estes blastômeros segregam um fluido metabólico que se acumula no centro do blastocisto. Nesta fase, as células internas aumentam de tamanho e se diferenciam, sendo as destinadas a formar o botão embrionário a partir do qual terá lugar a organogênese embrionária; e as periféricas, mais pequenas e abundantes, que darão lugar ao trofoblasto ou membranas embrionárias. O conjunto encontra-se rodeado de uma membrana (zona pelúcida) que posteriormente se dilui ou se dissolve permitindo a eclosão, por pressão interna do fluido acumulado, do blastocisto. 3.2 Fases embrionária e fetal A eclosão do blastocisto põe, em contato direto, o aglomerado de células embrionárias com a mucosa uterina e permite, ao eliminar-se a retenção da zona pelúcida, o alongamento, mediante proliferação e reordenação das camadas celulares, dos embriões, afim de aumentar a superfície de contato com o endométrio, facilitando assim a nutrição das células. Neste momento, nas espécies multíparas, tem lugar o deslocamento e redistribuição dos embriões pelos córneos uterinos, assegurando-se espaço suficiente para cada um antes da implantação dos mesmos. Em geral, a implantação é considerada efetiva quando a posição do embrião no útero é fixa (tabela 2), estabelecendo-se contato definitivo com o mesmo; para isso, as camadas externas do blastocisto liberado diferenciam-se dando lugar às membranas fetais que constituirão a parte embrionária da placenta. Espécie Porca Ovelha Vaca Égua Dias 12 – 24 12 – 18 33 – 35 55 – 65 Tabela 2. Momento da implantação embrionária em diferentes espécies. Fonte: COLE, 1977 e HUNTER, 1980. A placenta é a estrutura que permite um contato vascular eficaz entre as membranas fetais e a superfície do endométrio materno, através do qual ocorre a troca de oxigênio e de princípios nutritivos fornecidos pelo sangue materno e CO2, além de produtos de excreção provenientes do sangue fetal. Para além desta função metabólica, a placenta protege e isola o feto, tendo também uma importante missão endócrina para a manutenção da gestação. Do ponto de vista anatômico, a placenta fetal está diferenciada em quatro membranas: âmnio, saco vitelínico, alantoide e córion. a) Âmnio - É o invólucro mais interno que envolve totalmente o feto. Em seu interior, vai-se gradualmente acumulando o líquido amniótico, que é o meio pelo qual flutuam o embrião e o feto durante sua vida intrauterina. Este líquido tem a missão mecânica de proteger o embrião, bem como de distender o útero e favorecer seu crescimento. Nos estágios mais avançados da gestação, permite ao feto efetuar as evoluções necessárias para adotar posturas eutocicas para o parto. No entanto, o papel fundamental é de natureza nutritiva, uma vez que o feto absorve e deglute grandes quantidades de líquido amniótico. O líquido amniótico é inicialmente incolor e de natureza mucosa, variando seu aspecto conforme avança a gestação já que vai acumulando substâncias de reserva e restos metabólicos excretados pelo feto. O seu conteúdo é rico em sais minerais, seroalbuminas, gorduras, frutose e aminoácidos essenciais. b) Saco de vitelino - É uma estrutura primitiva que desenvolve-se no início do período embrionário a partir do endoderma, desaparecendo rapidamente e ficando apenas um resíduo dentro das membranas fetais. A sua missão é nutritiva nos primeiros estágios da gestação, agindo de certa forma, como uma placenta rudimentar, uma vez que absorve e acumula o histotrofo e os resíduos metabólicos do jovem embrião. Sua importância diminui à medida que avança a gestação e instaura-se a definitiva placenta. c) Alantoide - Esta fina membrana aparece como um divertículo da parte posterior do intestino. Em sua parte externa vai desenvolver uma abundante rede vascular ligada à aorta fetal pelas artérias umbilicais e à veia cava posterior e fígado pelas veias umbilicais. O alantoide se funde com o trofoblasto, constituindo o alantocorion, que, como veremos, estará intimamente ligado ao endométrio. Sua camada interna, muito pouco vascularizada, se apoia contra o âmnios. Na vaca, porca e ovelha o alantoides e o âmnios estão unidos em vários pontos; na égua o âmnios flutua livremente. Entre as camadas internas e externas do alantoide se encontra a cavidade alantoide, que basicamente armazena os produtos de resíduos dos rins fetais, sendo importante a concentração de resíduos do metabolismo nitrogenado: ureia, ácido úrico, alantoína etc. c) Córion - É o invólucro mais externo derivado do trofoblasto, sendo um saco fechado que abriga o resto das membranas fetais e o feto. Nas espécies multíparas, no final da gestação, há um único corion comum que envolve todos os fetos e suas membranas fetais. A face externa do corion, à medida que a gestação avança, vai desenvolvendo vilosidades bastante vascularizadas (vilosidades coriais) que são as que vão estabelecer a relação entre a placenta fetal e o endométrio, possibilitando, em toda sua extensão, os intercâmbios materno-fetais (figura 2). Figura 2. 1 – Córion; 2 – Saco vitelínico; 3 e 4 – Alantoides; 5 – Âmnio e 6 – Corpo fetal. Fonte: RUTTER e RUSSO, 2002. Dependendo da ligação placentária entre a mãe e o feto, diferente para cada espécie, podem ser estabelecidas diferentes classificações de placentas. Limito a comentar dois tipos, alicerçado pelo ponto de vista anatômico e do ponto de vista histológico. Anatomicamente - levando em conta a distribuição das conexões útero-coriais podemos falar de: a) Placenta difusa: Conexão em toda a extensão de contato uterocorial (égua e porca). b) Placentas localizadas: 1. Cotiledônea - Trata-se de botões coriais distribuídos mais ou menos uniformemente pela superfície de contato (ruminantes). 2. Zonal - A ligação ocorre apenas numa zona específica central, como um anel (cães e gatos). 3. Discoide - A conexão ocorre em uma zona ou zonas de forma oval; é típica de roedores. Histologicamente - baseado no número e tipo de camadas histológicas que separam a circulação materna e fetal (classificação de Grosser), o que determinará, em parte, a permeabilidade placentária. Deste modo, o feto receberá mais ou menos, e diretamente, os elementos nutritivos, imunitários ou tóxicos que circulam no sangue materno. Há quatro tipos diferentes: a) Epiteliocorial - Aqui, encontramos seis camadas tecidulares entre as duas circulações: tecidos endotelial, conectivo e epitelial corial, por parte fetal, e tecidos epitelial e conectivo uterino e a membrana capilar materna. Este tipo de placenta encontra-se na égua e na porca. b) sindesmocorial - O tecido epitelial corial está ligado diretamente à conjuntiva uterina. Tradicionalmente, têm-se considerado esta placenta como sendo típica de ruminantes; todavia, atualmente, esta classificação aparece como demasiado simplista à luz dos progressos das investigações ultraestruturais; verificou-se que o epitélio materno persiste em bovinos e caprinos, pelo qual estas duas espécies devem ser consideradas epiteliocoriais. c) Endoteliocorial - O tecido epitelial corial está em contato direto com as membranas capilares maternas. Esta placenta é típica de carnívoros. d) Hemocorial - O sangue materno banha diretamente ao epitélio corial, estando suprimidas todas as camadas tecidulares maternas. 3.3 Nutrição fetal A nutrição inicial é garantida pelo histotrofo ou leite uterino e, posteriormente, pelo hemotrofo ou substâncias nutritivas que o alantocorion absorve pelos pontos de contato do sangue materno. Dentro dela podemos distinguir: a) Troca gasosa - A passagem do oxigênio, por difusão, da mãe para o feto, ocorre devido à grande afinidade que existe com a hemoglobina fetal e à grande capacidade de dissociação da oxihemoglobina materna que o libera. Também acontece que os capilares maternos e fetais situam-se paralelamente com fluxos contracorrentes que originam importantes diferenças de pressão de oxigênio, o que facilita a difusão do gás. A troca de CO2 funciona por mecanismos semelhantes, mas vice-versa. b) Aporte de princípios imediatos - Os glicídios são trocados por osmose favorecida pelas menores concentrações que se desenrolam no sangue fetal em relação à materna. É interessante destacar que no sangue fetal aparecem glicose e frutose e no sangue materno apenas glicose. A síntese de frutose ocorre na placenta e não flui do feto para a mãe. No que diz respeito aos lipídios, a placenta é apenas um local de passagem. Quanto aos prótidos, além da difusão de aminoácidos e proteínas da mãe para o feto, a placenta também é capaz de sintetizar seus próprios aminoácidos, bem como desdobrar proteínas maternas e resintetizar outras para suas próprias necessidades. Em relação às proteínas de elevado peso molecular, só são permeáveis as placentas de tipo endoteliocorial e hemocorial, uma vez que as imunoglobulinas maternas (anticorpos) não podem ultrapassar esta barreira nas espécies que apresentam placenta sindesmocorial e epiteliocorial (nestas espécies (bovinos à exemplo) a imunidade será transferida por via colostral durante as primeiras horas de vida do neonato). 3.4 Mecanismos hormonais de regulação da gestação Na presença do ovo fecundado, no ovário desenrolam-se uma série de transformações. O corpo lúteo, que geralmente involuciona pelo efeito luteolítico da prostaglandina F2a, no caso da gestação permanece e se mantém produzindo progesterona. Parece que o estímulo antiluteolítico ocorre após a eclosão do blastocisto. A presença do ovário é fundamental em todas as espécies para a manutenção da gestação, sobretudo em seus primeiros momentos, tanto pela produção de progesterona como de estrogênio. Neste sentido, difere bastante uma espécie de outra, assim em ovelhas são citados 55 dias como tempo mínimo em que a produção de progesterona ovariana é indispensável, na égua 150 dias: no entanto, em vacas, cabras e porcas, uma ovariectomia realizada em qualquer momento da gestação provoca a sua interrupção. Ou seja, nas primeiras espécies, a partir de certos momentos, a placenta pode assumir o equilíbrio endócrino da gestação; nas segundas parece haver uma sinergia desta com o ovário, mas sem chegar a substituí-lo. a) Papel dos estrogênios - Embora os níveis de estrogênios, após a fecundação, baixem consideravelmente no sangue, a secreção ovárica continua, e é sobre os órgãos mais ativados pelos estrogênios que se manifestam mais as concentrações crescentes de progesterona, aumentando a permeabilidade capilar do útero, a multiplicação das suas células epiteliais, a acumulação de glicogênio nas suas células musculares, a hipertrofia das mesmas, etc. À medida em que a gestação progride, os níveis plasmáticos de estrogênios aumentam devido, sobretudo, à produção placentária. b) Papel da progesterona - A progesterona atua sobre o útero em diferentes níveis: — A nível da mucosa facilita as mudanças da mesma, preparados pelos estrogênios, aumentando também o desenvolvimento glandular. — Ao nível da musculatura uterina inibe, durante toda a gestação, as contrações do miométrio. — Ao nível do lobo anterior da hipófise bloqueia a produção de FSH e LH, parando as ondas cíclicas de maturação folicular. 3.5 Duração da gestação A duração da gestação é diferente segundo as espécies e dentro destas, com porcentagens menores de variação de acordo com a raça, o indivíduo, o estado sanitário, o sexo do feto, o número de fetos, a estação, etc. (tabela 3). Espécie Porca Ovelha/Cabra Vaca Égua Coelha Dias 114 (102-128) 154 (140-159) 283 (273-295) 340 (329-345) 31 (30-32) Tabela 3. Duração média e intervalo da gestação em diferentes espécies. Fonte: COLE, 1977. -/- 3.6 Diagnóstico da gestação O diagnóstico de gestação precoce é de grande importância nas espécies de interesse zootécnico, já que nelas procura-se, em geral, intensificar ao máximo o ciclo produtivo, limitando, na medida do possível, os períodos de incerteza. Nas espécies de ciclo curto e produção de carne, como a porca e a coelha, a intensificação é ainda maior e, portanto, o interesse do diagnóstico precoce de gestação aumenta. Os métodos de diagnóstico de gestação mais frequentes são: a) palpação - Para ser viável, é necessária a qualificação prática da pessoa que a realiza. Distinguem-se basicamente dois tipos: 1. Retal - Muito usada nos grandes animais como bovinos e equinos, permitem-nos diagnosticar, com uma porcentagem de cerca de 90% de acerto, a gestação da égua entre 45 e 60 dias após a cobrição e cerca de 45 dias na vaca. 2. Abdominal - Esta é praticada com sucesso quase exclusivamente em coelhas, podendo ser feito o diagnóstico entre os dias 11 e 14 de gestação. b) Ultrassons - Utilizados em ovelhas e porcas com bons resultados, embora, teoricamente, poderia ser utilizado em mais espécies. Em ovelhas permite-nos diagnosticar entre os 60 e 70 dias e na porca cerca dos 40 dias. c) hormonais - Utilizados principalmente em éguas. Baseado na presença de PMSG no sangue durante a gestação e a ação folículo estimulante e luteinizante da mesma ao ser injetado plasma de égua prenha em outra espécie animal de laboratório. 4 RESUMO E PRIMEIRAS CONCLUSÕES A fecundação pressupõe a fusão do gameta masculino e feminino numa zona específica do aparelho reprodutor da fêmea: a ampola tubária. Tal acontecimento é possível quando o óvulo e o esperma conseguem alcançar essa zona, se sua capacidade fecundante é ótima no momento do encontro, se produz a capacitação espermática e se, finalmente, o espermatozoide consegue penetrar o interior do óvulo. A fusão gamética representa o início da fase mais delicada na vida de uma reprodutora: a gestação. Regida hormonalmente pela progesterona, o período gestante compreende uma fase embrionária em que ocorre a organogênese e uma etapa fetal de desenvolvimento e crescimento do mesmo. A gestação, de duração variável segundo a espécie, termina com o parto ou expulsão da cria ou crias para fora do corpo materno. Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva – Departamento de Zootecnia da UFRPE. Recife, 2020. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- BRACKELL, B. G.; JR SEIDEL, G. E.; SEIDEL, S. Avances en zootecnia nuevas técnicas de reproducción animal. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1988. COLE, H. H.; CUPPS, P. T. Reproduction in domestic animals. 1ª ed. Londres: Academic Press, 1977. CUNNINGHAM, James G. Fisiología veterinaria. São Paulo: Elsevier, 2003. DERIVAUX, Jules; ECTORS, F. Fisiopatología de la gestación y obstetricia veterinaria. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1984. DERIVAUX, Jules; BARNABÉ, Renato Campanarut. Reprodução dos animais domésticos. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1980. DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Definição de Conceitos Básicos na Reprodução Animal: Fertilidade, Fecundidade e Prolificidade-Suínos. Philarchive. Disponível em: ----. Acesso em: Fevereiro de 2020. DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Características Gerais dos Bovinos/General Characteristics of Cattle Bovine. Philarchive. Disponível em: ----. Acesso em: Fevereiro de 2020. DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Fisiologia da Reprodução Animal: Ovulação, Controle e Sincronização do Cio. Disponível em: ----. Acesso em: Fevereiro de 2020. FERNÁNDEZ ABELLA, Daniel Héctor. Principios de fisiología reproductiva ovina. Montevidéu: Hemisferio Sur1993. GONZÁLEZ, Félix HD. Introdução a endocrinologia reprodutiva veterinária. Porto Alegre: UFRGS, v. 83, 2002. GRUNERT, E.; BOVE, S.; STOPIGLIA, A. Fisiología de la gestación. Guía de Obstetricia Veterinari - fisiología de la gestación. Buenos Aires: Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, p. 1-12, 1971. HAFEZ, E. S. E.; HAFEZ, B. Reprodução animal. São Paulo: Manole, 2004. HUNTER, R. H. F. Reproducción de los animales de granja. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1987. HUNTER, Ronald Henry Fraser et al. Physiology and technology of reproduction in female domestic animals. Londres: Academic Press, 1980. ILLERA, M. Endocrinología Veterinaria y Fisiología de la Reproducción. Zaragoza: Fareso, 1994. JAINUDEEN, M. R.; HAFEZ, E. S. E. Gestação, fisiologia pré-natal e parto. Revista Brasileira de Reprodução animal, v. 7, p. 141-142, 2004. PÉREZ PÉREZ, F.; PÉREZ GUTIÉRREZ, F. Reproducción animal, inseminación animal y transplante de embriones. Barcelona: Cientifico-medica, 1985. ROBERTS, Stephen J. Obstetricia veterinaria y patología de la reproducción. Montevidéu: Hemiferio Sur, 1979. SALISBURY, G. W.; VANDERMARK, N. L. Phisiology of the reproduction and artificial insemination of cattle. San Francisco : Freeman e Company, 1961, 630 p. SHILLE, V. M. Fisiologia reprodutiva e endocrinologia da fêmea e do macho. Tratado de medicina interna veterinária. São Paulo: Manole, p. 1857-68, 1992. RUTTER, Bruno; RUSSO, Angel F. Fundamentos de la fisiología de la gestación y el parto de los animales domésticos. Buenos Aires: Eudeba, 2002. UNGERFELD, Rodolfo. Reproducción en los animales domésticos. Montevidéu: Melibea, 2002. (shrink)

This article examines two manga, Stop!! Hibari-Kun! and No Bra, which prefigure the increasingly popular anime and manga genre of otokonoko from a queer studies perspective. Otokonoko, also known as otoko no musume, is a genre of manga in which persons assigned male at birth (AMAB) wear women’s clothing and are perceived as attractive women. The term otokonoko (男の娘) is pronounced identically to the term男の子, meaning boy-child; however, due to a pun in the kanji which replaces "child" (子) with "daughter"/"girl" (...) (娘), it translates to “boy-girl”, “boy-daughter”, or sometimes“boy-princess”. It is often translated into English as “cross-dresser”. The genre emerged in the early 2000s and has since become a popular point of reference and conversation both within and outside of anime and manga communities. Both the genre, and its titular characters have become iconic within both Japanese and Western online culture. As with most genres, the otokonoko genre is trope heavy, so I decided to look at works that prefigure the genre to better understand the appeal without the weight of the traditions of the genre weighing too heavily on the content. Both Stop!! Hibari-Kun! and No Bra follow the story of a boy who becomes increasingly attracted to a gender ambiguous character assigned male at birth, but who appears female to most. Both manga are centrally about this conflict between the love interests’ perceived maleness and the protagonists perceived heterosexuality. The article analyses the appeal of each work to both male and trans feminine readers, because what would later become the otokonoko genre is popular with both male and trans feminine readers. It also argues that these manga offer something unique from Western depictions of transgender lives, based on the popularity of manga and anime among Western trans feminine readers. (shrink)

In an article published in Prolegomena 2006, Christoph Schmidt-Petri has defended his interpretation and attacked mine of Mill’s idea that higher kinds of pleasure are superior in quality to lower kinds, regardless of quantity. Millian qualitative superiorities as I understand them are infinite superiorities. In this paper, I clarify my interpretation and show how Schmidt-Petri has misrepresented it and ignored the obvious textual support for it. As a result, he fails to understand how genuine Millian qualitative superiorities determine the novel (...) structure of Mill’s pluralistic utilitarianism, in which a social code of justice that distributes equal rights and duties takes absolute priority over competing considerations. Schmidt-Petri’s own interpretation is a non-starter, because it does noteven recognize that Mill is talking about different kinds of pleasant feelings, such that the higher kinds are intrinsically more valuable than the lower. I conclude by outlining why my interpretation is free of any metaphysical commitment to the “essence” of pleasure. (shrink)

This thesis is about making decisions when we are uncertain about what will happen, how valuable it will be, and even how to make decisions. Even the most sure-footed amongst us are sometimes uncertain about all three, but surprisingly little attention has been given to the latter two. The three essays that constitute my thesis hope to do a small part in rectifying this problem. The first essay is about the value of finding out how to make decisions. Society spends (...) considerable resources funding people (like me) to research decision-making, so it is natural to wonder whether society is getting a good deal. This question is so shockingly underresearched that bedrock facts are readily discoverable, such as when this kind of information is valuable. My second essay concerns whether we can compare value when we are uncertain about value. Many people are in fact uncertain about value, and how we deal with this uncertainty hinges on these comparisons. I argue that value comparisons are only sometimes possible; I call this weak comparability. This essay is largely a synthesis of the literature, but I also present an argument which begins with a peculiar view of the self: it is as if each of us is a crowd of different people separated by time (but connected by continuity of experience). I’m not the first to endorse this peculiar view of the self, but I am the first to show how it supports the benign view that value is sometimes comparable. We may be uncertain of any decision rules, even those that would tell us how to act when we face uncertainty in decision rules. We may be uncertain of how to decide how to decide how to... And so on. If so, we might have to accept infinitely many decision rules just to make any mundane decision, such as whether to pick up a five-cent piece from the gutter. My third essay addresses this problem of regress. I think all of our decisions are forced: we must decide now or continue to deliberate. Surprisingly, this allows us to avoid the original problem. I call this solution “when forced, do your best”. (shrink)

This dissertation is concerned with a fundamental problem at the heart of Arendt’s The Human Condition—namely, ‘the problem of idleness’. This problem is related to the three types of human Arendt identifies as correlated to dominant activities in one’s life, animal laborans, homo faber, and the acting person. It explores Arendt’s predictions of an oncoming automation crisis, and the possibility of a corresponding crisis in the production—consumption cycle. The problem of idleness can be understood as the claim that if people (...) are provided freedom from job-holding so that they may pursue other activities, they would likely turn to consumption to occupy their time. I claim that this problem of idleness is important in any consideration of an oncoming automation crisis, especially in relation to Universal Basic Income (UBI) as a solution to such a crisis. I claim that there is a hole in the UBI literature concerning this problem of idleness, and if left unaddressed it would result in both an ineffective UBI, and in a crisis of meaning for the general populace. This dissertation demonstrates what the problem of idleness is, why it is important, and what possible solutions exist. This contributes to the UBI literature by diagnosing and attempting to solve a gap in the literature which I argue would cause practical challenges in the implementation and stability of a UBI system. I also contribute to the Arendtian literature by problematizing traditional readings of Arendt, and offering a reappraisal of her thought on Marx, art, and the social. (shrink)

The scope of the sexual abuse of minors’ crises within the Catholic Church examined in conjunction with the purpose of temporal goods, the responsibility of the episcopate, the meaning of good stewardship, the faithful’s obligation to financially support the church, and compensation to alleged victims and their attorneys presents a realistic quandary for the Christifideles. -/- Should the Church replete with its perceived “deep pockets” be “selling off” temporal goods to remunerate lawsuits, which in some situations far exceed those of (...) other “institutions?” Should there be limits? Moreover, one ought to also contemplate whether there is a difference in the “handling” or disposition of sexual abuse cases involving minors when the competent authority has knowingly increased the risk of financial liability to the faithful. What should happen? This brief analysis seeks to examine the above questions as they apply to dioceses in the U.S. and its territories. Inquiry concerning canon 1254, inter alia in the 1983 Code of Canon Law may allow insight vis-à-vis the connotation of “temporal goods,” their application, and relevancy to restitution regarding the sexual abuse of minors. -/- . (shrink)

This article contributes to the debate on the relationship between marketing and propaganda through an analysis of social marketing as a mode of governing in permanent campaigning. The working hypothesis is that social marketing operations are agitational rather than propagandistic. The conceptual approach stems from a comparison of propaganda and marketing with Fordist and post-Fordist modes of production and governance. The research into the role of agitation involves an empirical study of the UK government campaign against benefit fraud, the most (...) expensive of its kind. Using a combination of methodologies, the political context is framed through a discourse analysis that charts the historical emergence of the problem of benefit fraud and the material effects of this discourse on welfare spending allocation, content analysis is used to identify correspondences between different newspapers’ rhetoric and policy under different governments, and semiotic analysis helps to decode the message of the campaign against benefit fraud, as it relates to the overall government’s strategy on this issue. The study offers insights into the political strategy of the government of New Labour between 1997 and 2010 and its resort to agitational techniques, exposing the limitations of government marketing and public relations in the context of an overall crisis of its political legitimacy, in both economic and political terms. (shrink)

The paper presents the findings of ethnographic research and a survey of a Local Exchange Trading Scheme in North-East London and asks the question of whether the scheme delivers on the aims and objectives of its members. The research found that whilst its members express a strong politically motivated desire for an alternative to the prevailing economic system, the LETS scheme falls short of delivering on those ambitions. The findings raise the question of whether there is anything intrinsic to this (...) form of local community currency that leads it to be more inclusive, egalitarian and fair. (shrink)

The condition of precariousness not only provides insights into a segment of the world of work or of a particular subject group, but is also a privileged standpoint for an overview of the condition of the social on a global scale. Because precariousness is multidimensional and polysemantic, it traverses contemporary society and multiple contexts, from industrial to class, gender, family relations as well as political participation, citizenship and migration. This book maps the differences and similarities in the ways precariousness and (...) insecurity in employment unfold and are subjectively experienced in regions and sectors that are confronted with different labour histories, legislations and economic priorities. Establishing a constructive dialogue amongst different global regions and across disciplines, the chapters explore the shift from precariousness to precariat and collective subjects as it is being articulated in the current global crisis. This edited collection aims to continue a process of mapping experiences by means of ethnographies, fieldwork, interviews, content analysis, where the precarious define their condition and explain how they try to withdraw from, cope with or embrace it. (shrink)

Essential Microeconomics is designed to help students deepen their understanding of the core theory of microeconomics. Unlike other texts, this book focuses on the most important ideas and does not attempt to be encyclopedic. Two-thirds of the textbook focuses on price theory. As well as taking a new look at standard equilibrium theory, there is extensive examination of equilibrium under uncertainty, the capital asset pricing model, and arbitrage pricing theory. Choice over time is given extensive coverage and includes a basic (...) introduction to control theory. The final third of the book, on game theory, provides a comprehensive introduction to models with asymmetric information. Topics such as auctions, signaling and mechanism design are made accessible to students who have a basic rather than a deep understanding of mathematics. Examples and diagrams are used to illustrate issues as well as formal derivations. (shrink)

Written in 1949, La Scoperta di Marx was first published in 1958 in Pier Paolo Pasolini, L'usignolo della Chiesa Cattolica (Editore Longanesi). It is published here, along the first English translation of the poem, with the permission of Garzanti Libri.

Amartya Sen has recently leveled a series of what he alleges to be quite serious very general objections against Rawls, Rawlsian fellow travelers, and other social contract accounts of justice. In The Idea of Justice, published in 2009, Sen specifically charges his target philosophical views with what calls transcendentalism, procedural parochialism, and with being mistakenly narrowly focused on institutions. He also thinks there is a basic incoherence—arising from a version of Derek Parfit’s Identity Problem—internal to the Rawslian theoretical apparatus. Sen (...) would have political philosophy pursue intersocietal comparisons of relative justice more directly and in the manner of social choice theory. Yet the positive argument he develops in support of this method is quite thin. That aside, Sen’s polemical strategy of inflicting death by a thousand cuts is ineffective against the Rawlsian paradigm. For, as I show herein, none of these criticisms have the force we might be led to expect. (shrink)

A review of Enda Brophy's study of call centre work in global capitalism. Language put to work. Published in 2018.

The acquisition of a new skill usually proceeds through five stages, from novice to expert, with a sixth stage of mastery available for highly motivated performers. In this chapter, we re-state the six stages of the Dreyfus Skill Model, paying new attention to the transitions and interrelations between them. While discussing the fifth stage, expertise, we unpack the claim that, “when things are proceeding normally, experts don’t solve problems and don’t make decisions; they do what normally works” (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, (...) 1988, pp. 30 – 31). This leads us to offer an account of the “perspectival deliberation” that arises for experts and masters and that is distinct from the calculative deliberation characteristic of the lower stages of skillfulness. (shrink)

In the wake of the advent of genome editing technology CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-associated protein 9), there has been a global debate around the implications of manipulating the human genome. While CRISPR-based germline gene editing is new, the debate about the ethics of gene editing is not – for several decades now, scholars have debated the ethics of making heritable changes to the human genome. The arguments that have been raised both for and against the use of (...) genetic technologies in human reproduction reiterate much of the arguments made in the pre-CRISPR debate. As such, it is instructive for South Africa to reflect on these arguments now, in considering our position on the regulation of the use of this novel biotechnology. There are two dominant schools of thought in this area, bioliberalism and bioconservatism. Bioconservatives raise concerns about the risks of genetic manipulation, and argue that it ought to be limited or prohibited to avert these risks to human health and human nature. Bioliberal scholars are more open to the prospect of genetic manipulation, because of its potential utility. In this article, I conclude that in liberal democracies such as our own, bioliberal arguments ought to be seriously considered when formulating policy on human genome editing because of the extent to which they resonate with our Constitutional values and human rights. I further suggest that there is a need for an enquiry into the relevance of African perspectives on the ethical questions that arise concerning germline genome editing. (shrink)

Influential cases have been provided that seem to suggest that one can fail to have knowledge because of the social environment. If not a distinct kind of social defeater, is there a uniquely social phenomenon that defeats knowledge? My aim in this paper is to explore these questions. I shall argue that despite initial appearances to the contrary, we have no reason to accept a special class of social defeater, nor any essentially social defeat phenomenon. We can explain putative cases (...) of social defeat with our existing epistemological apparatus. (shrink)

In this paper, I argue that self-awareness is intertwined with one's awareness of possibilities for action. I show this by critically examining Dan Zahavi's multidimensional account of the self. I argue that the distinction Zahavi makes among 'pre-reflective minimal', 'interpersonal', and 'normative' dimensions of selfhood needs to be refined in order to accommodate what I call 'pre-reflective self-understanding'. The latter is a normative dimension of selfhood manifest not in reflection and deliberation, but in the habits and style of a person’s (...) pre-reflective absorption in the world. After reviewing Zahavi's multidimensional account and revealing this gap in his explanatory taxonomy, I draw upon Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, and Frankfurt in order to sketch an account of pre-reflective self-understanding. I end by raising an objection to Zahavi’s claim for the primitive and foundational status of pre-reflective self-awareness. To carve off self-awareness from the self’s practical immersion in a situation where things and possibilities already matter and draw one to act is to distort the phenomena. A more careful phenomenology of pre-reflective action shows that pre-reflective self-awareness and pre-reflective self-understanding are co-constitutive, both mutually for each other and jointly for everyday experience. (shrink)

In common with traditional forms of epistemic internalism, epistemological disjunctivism attempts to incorporate an awareness condition on justification. Unlike traditional forms of internalism, however, epistemological disjunctivism rejects the so-called New Evil Genius thesis. In so far as epistemological disjunctivism rejects the New Evil Genius thesis, it is revisionary. -/- After explaining what epistemological disjunctivism is, and how it relates to traditional forms of epistemic internalism / externalism, I shall argue that the epistemological disjunctivist’s account of the intuitions underlying the New (...) Evil Genius thought experiment is at best incomplete. As presented, therefore, epistemological disjunctivism is unable to accommodate the core guiding intuitions of epistemic internalism. Given the stated aim of not being revisionary on this score, the view is at a dialectical disadvantage over the traditional forms of epistemic internalism the position is meant to replace. Unfortunately, therefore, at present, the impasse between internalism and externalism remains. (shrink)

Early Heidegger argues that a “homogenous space of nature” can be revealed by stripping away the intelligibility of Dasein's everyday world, a process he calls “deworlding.” Given this, some interpreters have suggested that Heidegger, despite not having worked out the details himself, is also committed to a notion of deworlded time. Such a “natural time” would amount to an endogenous sequentiality in which events are ordered independently of Dasein and the stand it takes on its being. I show that Heidegger (...) was indeed committed to such a temporal realism even though his treatment of these issues is somewhat scattered and pulled in different directions. In the course of my reconstruction, I renew an interpretation of Heidegger that stresses Dasein's thrownness into nature and I answer William Blattner's powerful interpretation of Heidegger as a failed temporal idealist who was unable to derive the sequentiality of ordinary time from Dasein's non-sequential originary temporality. Heidegger did not attempt to derive sequentiality; instead, he understood it as a built-in feature of the natural universe by which Dasein's activities are constrained. World-time turns out to be a co-production of Dasein's non-sequential originary temporality and the endogenous sequentiality of events in nature. (shrink)

The New Evil Demon problem has been hotly debated since the case was introduced in the early 1980’s (e.g. Lehrer and Cohen 1983; Cohen 1984), and there seems to be recent increased interest in the topic. In a forthcoming collection of papers on the New Evil Demon problem (Dutant and Dorsch, forthcoming), at least two of the papers, both by prominent epistemologists, attempt to resist the problem by appealing to the distinction between justification and excuses. My primary aim here is (...) to critically evaluate this new excuse maneuver as a response to the New Evil Demon problem. -/- Their response attempts to give us reason to reject the idea that victims of the New Evil Demon have justification for believing as they do. I shall argue that this approach is ultimately unsuccessful, however much of value can be learned from these attempts. In particular, progress in the debate can be made by following those who advance the excuse maneuver and make explicit the connection between epistemic justification and epistemic norms. By doing so, the questions being debated are clarified, as is the methodology being used to attempt to answer them. (shrink)

What is it to be a woman? What is it to be a man? We start by laying out desiderata for an analysis of 'woman' and 'man': descriptively, it should link these gender categories to sex biology without reducing them to sex biology, and politically, it should help us explain and combat traditional sexism while also allowing us to make sense of the activist view that gendering should be consensual. Using a Putnam-style 'Twin Earth' example, we argue that none of (...) the existing analyses in the feminist literature succeeds in meeting all of our desiderata. Finally, we propose a positive account that we believe can satisfy all the desiderata outlined. According to our theory, the genders 'woman' and 'man' are individuated not by their contemporary connections to sex biology, but by their historical continuity with classes that were originally closely connected to sex biology. (shrink)

Both Martin Heidegger and Harry Frankfurt have argued that the fundamental feature of human identity is care. Both contend that caring is bound up with the fact that we are finite beings related to our own impending death, and both argue that caring has a distinctive, circular and non-instantaneous, temporal structure. In this paper, I explore the way Heidegger and Frankfurt each understand the relations among care, death, and time, and I argue for the superiority of Heideggerian version of this (...) nest of claims. Frankfurt claims that we should conceive of the most basic commitments which practically orient a person in the world and define his identity (“volitional necessities”) as naturalistic facts, foundational for and located completely without the normative space of reasons. In support of this he appeals to the supposedly foundational role played in human life by the instinct for self-preservation, what Frankfurt calls the “love of living.” The claim is that in questions of practical identity there is a definite priority of the factual over the normative. Frankfurt’s naturalistic model of volitional necessity is motivated by a misunderstanding of the temporal structure of care, a misunderstanding that helps lead him to an implausible conception of the basic structures of human identity. Heidegger advances an anti-naturalistic conception of caring, one bound up with his way of understanding how human beings relate to their own future. I argue that the existential, temporal, and normative significance that Frankfurt attributes to the naturalized “love of living” is better captured by the Heideggerian claim that human identity is defined by being “for-the-sake-of” certain projects and commitments, a way of being lived out in the way Heidegger calls “being-towards-death.”. (shrink)

In this article I argue that the value of epistemic justification cannot be adequately explained as being instrumental to truth. I intend to show that false belief, which is no means to truth, can nevertheless still be of epistemic value. This in turn will make a good prima facie case that justification is valuable for its own sake. If this is right, we will have also found reason to think that truth value monism is false: assuming that true belief does (...) have value, there is more of final epistemic value than mere true belief. (shrink)

In this introduction, we cover some ways in which the topic of noise is discussed today, and then point to some important open questions about noise and its experience. We then provide a synopsis of the papers collected in the volume.

My interest lies in offering a phenomenological perspective on how noise is experienced, with particular attention to what may be common to different sorts of noise phenomena. As a counterpoint to the notion that noise is an empty or constructed notion, I argue for two desiderata of a phenomenological account of noise; accommodating a plurality of noise experiences, on the one hand, and clarifying their specific phenomenal character, on the other. I then pursue these desiderata by turning to an examination (...) of some contemporary views of perception that have implications for how the phenomenal character of perceptual noise in particular is to be understood; an epistemic misfire view and a sensory misfire view. After clarifying each and its appeal, I convey concerns about the one and the other. I propose a third alternative for further exploration - a perceptual disjoint view - and point to how it ought to explored. On the premise that there is something like a unity of consciousness or experience, I lay out the idea that there may then be many forms of 'disunities' of experience. From an analysis of the latter, I suggest, one may account for many different types of experiences of noise, though with a common ‘phenomenal’ thread running through them. (shrink)

In 2035 global egg demand will have risen 50% from 1985. Because we are not able to tell in the egg whether it will become a male or female chick, billons of one day-old male chicks will be killed. International research initiatives are underway in this area, and governments encourage the development of an alternative with the goal of eliminating the culling of day-old male chicks. The Netherlands holds an exceptional position in the European egg trade, but is also the (...) only country in the European Union where the downside of the egg sector, the practice of killing day-old male chicks, is a recurrent subject of societal debate. ‘Preventing the killing of young animals’ and ‘in ovo sex determination’ are the two alternative approaches available to solve this problem. It is clear that both approaches solve the problem of killing day-old male chicks, either by keeping them alive or by preventing them from living, but they also raise a lot of new animal welfare-related dilemmas. A thorough analysis was undertaken of these dilemmas and the results are presented in this article. The analysis resulted in an ethical framework based on the two main approaches in bioethics: a consequentialist approach and a deontological approach. This ethical framework was used to develop an online survey administered to ascertain Dutch public opinion about these alternative approaches. The results show that neither alternative will be fully accepted, or accepted by more than half of Dutch society. However, the survey does provide an insight into the motives that are important for people’s choice: food safety and a good treatment of animals. Irrespective of the approach chosen, these values should be safeguarded and communicated clearly. (shrink)

(Added April 2023: This draft is superseded by Briggs, R.A., & George, B.R. (2023). 'What Even Is Gender?'. Routledge. DOI 10.4324/9781003053330, and in particular by the first three chapters thereof. While this much earlier draft remains available for archival purposes, you are encouraged to read and cite the 2023 book and to use its terminology.) -/- This paper presents a new taxonomy of sex/gender concepts based on the idea of starting with a few basic components of the sex/gender system, and (...) exhausting the possible types of simple associations and identities based on these. The resulting system is significantly more fine-grained than most competitors, and helps to clarify a number of points of confusion and conceptual tension in academic and activist conversations about feminism, transgender politics, and the social analysis of gender. (shrink)

In his Edifying Discourses, Soren Kierkegaard published a sermon entitled ‘The Unchangeableness of God’ in which he reiterated the dogma which dominated Catholic, Protestant and even Jewish expressions of classical supernaturalist theology from the first century A.D. until the advent of process theology in the twentieth century. The dogma that as a perfect being, God must be totally unchanging in every conceivable respect was expressed by Kierkegaard in such ways as: He changes all, Himself unchanged. When everything seems stable and (...) in the overturn of all things, He remains equally unchanged; no change touches Him, not even the shadow of a change; in unaltered clearness He, the father of lights, remained eternally unchanged. 1. (shrink)

According to Heidegger's Being and Time, social relations are constitutive of the core features of human agency. On this view, which I call a ‘strong conception’ of sociality, the core features of human agency cannot obtain in an individual subject independently of social relations to others. I explain the strong conception of sociality captured by Heidegger's underdeveloped notion of ‘being-with’ by reconstructing Heidegger's critique of the ‘weak conception’ of sociality characteristic of Kant's theory of agency. According to a weak conception, (...) sociality is a mere aggregation of individual subjects and the core features of human agency are built into each individual mind. The weak conception of sociality remains today widely taken for granted. I show that Christine Korsgaard, one of the most creative contemporary appropriators of Kant, operates with a weak conception of sociality and that this produces a problematic explanatory deficiency in her view: she is unable to explain the peculiar motivational efficacy of shared social norms. Heidegger's view is tailor made to explain this phenomenon. I end by sketching how Heidegger provides a social explanation of a major systematic concern animating Korsgaard, the concern with the importance of individual autonomy and answerability in human life. (shrink)

Proponents of the problem of animal suffering claim that the millions of years of apparent nonhuman animal pain and suffering provides evidence against the existence of God. Neo-Cartesianism attempts to avoid this problem mainly by denying the existence of phenomenal consciousness in nonhuman animals. However, neo-Cartesian options regarding animal minds have failed to compel many. In this essay, I explore an answer to the problem of animal suffering inspired by the medieval theologian Thomas Aquinas. Instead of focusing on phenomenal consciousness, (...) the neo-Thomistic view of animal minds focuses on self-awareness. After proposing and providing evidence for this view, I conclude that nonhuman animal suffering is not morally significant. (shrink)

If knowledge requires safety, then one might think that when the epistemic source of knowledge is testimony, that testimony must itself be safe. Otherwise, will not the lack of safety transfer from testimony to hearer, such that hearer will lack knowledge? Resisting this natural line of reasoning, Goldberg (2005; 2007) argues that testimonial knowledge through unsafe testimony is possible on the basis of two cases. Lackey (2008) and Pelling (2013) criticize Goldberg’s examples. But Pelling goes on to provide his own (...) example that attempts to show that Goldberg’s thesis is true: one can gain safe testimonial belief from unsafe testimony. If any of these counterexamples were correct, they would undermine the main reason to think that knowledge based on unsafe testimony is impossible. My aim in this paper is to critically assess these arguments, and to consider the possibility of knowledge through unsafe testimony. Drawing a general moral from the analysis of these cases, I shall contend that it is impossible to acquire safe belief solely on the basis of unsafe testimony. If so, then testimonial knowledge based solely on unsafe testimony is impossible. (shrink)

These days the two most popular approaches to belief ascription are Millianism and Contextualism. The former approach is inconsistent with the existence of ordinary Frege cases, such as Lois believing that Superman flies while failing to believe that Clark Kent flies. The Millian holds that the only truth-conditionally relevant aspect of a proper name is its referent or extension. Contextualism, as I will define it for the purposes of this essay, includes all theories according to which ascriptions of the form (...) ‘S believes that a is F’ and ‘S believes that b is F’, where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are coreferential proper names, may, depending on the context, differ in truth-value even though in those very contexts each ascription relates the same believer to the very same proposition. What the two theories have in common is the claim that names are Millian. What separates the two theories is what they say about belief contexts. In this essay I prove that Millianism is true, Contextualism is true, or our intuitions regarding belief ascriptions are hopelessly inaccurate. As a consequence, my argument is a proof that either names and many general terms are Millian or our intuitions regarding belief ascriptions are hopelessly inaccurate. (shrink)

In general, epistemic internalists hold that an individual’s justification for a belief is exhausted by her reflectively accessible reasons for thinking that the contents of her beliefs are true. Applying this to the epistemology of testimony, a hearer’s justification for beliefs acquired through testimony is exhausted by her reflectively accessible reasons to think that the contents of the speaker’s testimony is true. A consequence of internalism is that subjects that are alike with respect to their reflectively accessible reasons are alike (...) with respect to what they have justification to believe. Testimony should be thought no different: hearers that are alike with respect to reflectively accessible reasons to think that a speaker’s testimony is true are alike with respect to their justification for beliefs based upon that testimony. But it has been recently argued that this view faces powerful counterexamples. So the central question is this: assuming that a hearer can acquire justification to believe a proposition through the testimony of a speaker, can epistemic internalism provide the resources to explain how such justification is possible? My aim in this paper is to address these counterexamples, and in so doing, defend epistemic internalist accounts of testimony. (shrink)

Does the recent success of Podemos and Syriza herald a new era of inclusive, egalitarian left populism? Because leaders of both parties are former students of Ernesto Laclau and cite his account of populism as guiding their political practice, this essay considers whether his theory supports hope for a new kind of populism. For Laclau, the essence of populism is an “empty signifier” that provides a means by which anyone can identify with the people as a whole. However, the concept (...) of the empty signifier is not as neutral as he assumes. As I show by analyzing the role of race in his theory, some subjects are constituted in a way that prevents their unmediated identification with the people. Consequently, Laclau’s view should be read as symptomatic of the problems with populist logic if its adherents are to avoid reproducing its exclusions and practice a more inclusive politics. (shrink)

The current resurgence of interest in cognition and in the nature of cognitive processing has brought with it also a renewed interest in the early work of Husserl, which contains one of the most sustained attempts to come to grips with the problems of logic from a cognitive point of view. Logic, for Husserl, is a theory of science; but it is a theory which takes seriously the idea that scientific theories are constituted by the mental acts of cognitive subjects. (...) The present essay begins with an exposition of Husserl's act-based conception of what a science is, and goes on to consider his account of the role of linguistic meanings, of the ontology of scientific objects, and of evidence and truth. The essay concentrates almost exclusively on the Logical Investigations of 1900/01. This is not only because this work, which is surely Husserl's single most important masterpiece, has been overshadowed first of all by his Ideas I and then later by the Crisis. It is also because the Investigations contain, in a peculiarly clear and pregnant form, a whole panoply of ideas on logic and cognitive theory which either simply disappeared in Husserl's own later writings or became obfuscated by an admixture of that great mystery which is 'transcendental phenomenology'. (shrink)

Epistemic internalism, by stressing the indispensability of the subject’s perspective, strikes many as plausible at first blush. However, many people have tended to reject the position because certain kinds of beliefs have been thought to pose special problems for epistemic internalism. For example, internalists tend to hold that so long as a justifier is available to the subject either immediately or upon introspection, it can serve to justify beliefs. Many have thought it obvious that no such view can be correct, (...) as it has been alleged that internalism cannot account for the possibility of the justification of beliefs stored in memory. -/- My aim in this paper is to offer a response that explains how memory justification is possible in a way that is consistent with epistemic internalism and an awareness condition on justification. Specifically, I will explore the plausibility of various options open to internalists, including both foundationalist and non-foundationalist approaches to the structure of justification. I intend to show that despite other difficult challenges that epistemic internalism might face, memory belief poses no special problems that the resources of internalism cannot adequately address. (shrink)

This chapter first surveys general issues in the epistemic internalism / externalism debate: what is the distinction, what motivates it, and what arguments can be given on both sides. -/- The second part of the chapter will examine the internalism / externalism debate as regards to the specific case of the epistemology of memory belief.

This article evaluates an emerging element in popular debate and inquiry: DYOR. (Haven’t heard of the acronym? Then Do Your Own Research.) The slogan is flexible and versatile. It is used frequently on social media platforms about topics from medical science to financial investing to conspiracy theories. Using conceptual and empirical resources drawn from philosophy and psychology, we examine key questions about the slogan’s operation in human cognition and epistemic culture.

In its most basic form, Simple Reliabilism states that: a belief is justified iff it is formed as the result of a reliable belief-forming process. But so-called New Evil Demon cases have been given as counterexamples. A common response has been to complicate reliabilism from its simplest form to accommodate the basic reliabilist position, while at the same time granting the force of NED intuitions. But what if despite initial appearances, Simple Reliabilism, without qualification, is compatible with the NED intuition? (...) What we can call the Dispositionalist Response to the New Evil Demon problem is fascinating because it contends just that: Simple Reliabilism is fully compatible with the NED intuition. It is claimed that all we need to do to recognize their compatibility is appreciate that reliability is a dispositional property. In this paper I shall critically evaluate the Dispositionalist proposal. (shrink)

In addition to the notion of defeat, do we need to expand the epistemological repertoire used in accounting for the context dependence of justification? It has recently been argued that we ought to admit a hitherto unrecognized fundamental epistemic kind called ‘disqualifiers’. Disqualifiers are taken to be not reducible to any other epistemic notion. Rather, they are meant to be primitive. If this is correct, it is a surprising and novel discovery, and so it is worthy of further epistemological investigation. (...) In this paper I shall first argue that the cases given do not motivate positing the notion of a disqualifier. Conclusions drawn about the existence of disqualifiers do not follow from the considerations advanced. Second, I shall directly argue that an essential core claim of those who would posit disqualifiers, that so-called disqualifiers actually do prevent epistemic bases from conferring justification, is false. In sum, I shall argue that there are no disqualifiers. (shrink)

This article considers recent arguments against the proposition that one and the same object cannot go out of existence and then come into existence again (so that, e.g., teleportation would involve change of identity.). It argues that these arguments can be evaded by adopting a four-dimensional ontology, according to which human beings, trees, etc., have temporal as well as spatial parts.

The discipline of applied ethics already has a certain familiarity in the Anglo-Saxon world, above all through the work of Peter Singer. Applied ethics uses the tools of moral philosophy to resolve practical problems of the sort which arise, for example, in the running of hospitals. In the University at Buffalo (New York) there was organized on April 24-25 1998 the world's first conference on a new, sister discipline, the discipline of applied ontology. Applied ontologists seek to apply ontological tools (...) to solving practical problems of the sort which arise in various extra-philosophical domains, including law and government administration. (shrink)

The increasing demand for reliable power sources has made diesel generators essential in various industries. However, traditional monitoring methods often rely on manual inspections, resulting in inefficiencies, unplanned downtimes, and higher operational costs. This project proposes a digital monitoring system for diesel generators that leverages advanced sensor technologies and real-time data analytics to overcome these challenges. The system will utilize Internet of Things (IoT) devices to collect key operational parameters, such as fuel levels, temperature, vibration, and performance metrics, enabling comprehensive (...) monitoring of generator health. By integrating machine learning algorithms, the system will analyze historical and real-time data to predict potential failures and optimize maintenance schedules, shifting from reactive to proactive management. A user-friendly interface will allow operators to visualize generator performance and receive instant alerts for detected anomalies, enhancing decision- making processes, reducing downtime, and lowering maintenance costs—ultimately increasing the reliability and efficiency of power supply. Additionally, the system facilitates remote monitoring, providing continuous oversight regardless of location. This project not only aims to enhance the operational efficiency of diesel generators but also lays the groundwork for smarter energy management solutions in the future. The successful implementation of this digital monitoring system could serve as a model for similar applications across various sectors, contributing to sustainability and operational excellence in energy management. Through this innovative approach, we aim to ensure diesel generators operate at optimal performance levels while minimizing environmental impact. Keywords. Diesel Generators, Digital Monitoring, IoT Devices, Real-time Data Analytics, Machine Learning. (shrink)

In The Realm of Reason (2004), Christopher Peacocke develops a “generalized rationalism” concerning, among other things, what it is for someone to be “entitled”, or justified, in forming a given belief. In the course of his discussion, Peacocke offers two arguments to the best explanation that aim to undermine scepticism and establish a justification for our belief in the reliability of sense perception, respectively. If sound, these ambitious arguments would answer some of the oldest and most vexing epistemological problems. In (...) this paper I will evaluate these arguments, concluding that they are inconclusive at best. Despite offering some interestingly original arguments, Peacocke gives us no reason to think that scepticism is false, and that perception is generally reliable. (shrink)

Anh chàng Anhinga, còn gọi là chim cổ rắn, xuất trong hai bức tranh tiêu đề “Nóng” ngày 20/11/2023. Một năm sau, lại tìm được ngôi nhà mát mẻ hơn cho anh chàng. Chốn đó là xứ sở kỳ quặc, lắm chuyện kỳ khôi, nơi cư trú của ông Bói Cá, gọi là Xóm Chim. Chứ ở mãi trong Gallery mãi cũng chán.